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Questions answered by:
JFI – Joanna Fong-Isariyawongse, MD, FAAN, FAES | Associate Professor of Neurology, University of Pittsburg
KS – Kim Schwabenbauer, PhD, RD, CSSD | Associate Professor, PennWest Clarion; Owner, Fuel Your Passion Sports Nutrition Counseling
Any Opinions or scientific interpretations expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the position or policy of PepsiCo, Inc.
General
Q: What are some of the ways you can train for sleep? Have any sleep training studies been done on populations other than athletes?
JFI – Sleep hygiene, consistent schedules, CBT-I, sleep extension, strategic napping, nutrition (tart cherry, kiwi, dairy/fish, balanced carbs/protein), caffeine timing. CBT-I and diet/schedule studies are robust in the general population as well as athletes.
Q: Some people need less sleep in general than others. How does this factor in with this sleep need information?
JFI – 7–9 hours is an average; true “short sleepers” are rare (<1%). Most people accrue deficits and performance or health risks when sleeping below their individual need. Track function, mood, and daytime sleepiness as guardrails.
Q: Can this research on athletes be generalized to the average adult population?
JFI – Yes. There is extensive data showing that sleep loss impairs performance, reaction time, mood, and safety across both athletes and the general population. The same core principles—regular sleep schedules, caffeine timing, balanced nutrition, and good sleep hygiene—apply broadly. However, athletes often need more sleep and stricter recovery routines due to higher physical and travel demands.
Q: How can coaches and trainers work to ‘train’ athletes to sleep properly?
JFI – Coaches and trainers play a key role in shaping athletes’ sleep habits by creating a team culture that values rest and recovery as much as physical training. Establishing clear norms, such as lights-out windows, caffeine cutoffs, and screen-free periods before bed, helps promote consistency and reinforces that sleep is part of training, not separate from it.
Scheduling workouts with sleep and circadian timing in mind is equally important. Early morning practices, late games, and frequent travel can all disrupt recovery, so planning adequate rest days and post-travel recovery windows protects both performance and injury risk. Developing individualized travel sleep plans (adjusting light exposure, naps, and caffeine timing) can also minimize jet lag and sustain readiness.
Coaches and trainers should provide ongoing education on the benefits of sleep for performance, focus, and mood. Using sleep tracking tools, pre-sleep checklists, and team discussions about sleep goals builds awareness and accountability. Emphasize the positive impact of better sleep.
There is no one-size-fits-all strategy. Just like strength or conditioning, sleep training should be individualized, tailored to each athlete’s schedule, travel demands, and sleep patterns. Partnering with sleep specialists for short workshops or individualized feedback reinforces that sleep is a trainable, performance-enhancing skill, one that can mean the difference between being ready and being run down.
Q: Is there such a thing as “too much sleep”?
KS – Epidemiological studies have identified a relationship between habitual long sleep—typically defined as exceeding approximately nine hours per 24-hour period—and adverse health outcomes, in some cases mirroring those observed in individuals with habitual short sleep. Reported associations include, but are not limited to, an increased risk of viral infections, elevated risk of type II diabetes, hypertension, impaired glycemic control in individuals with diabetes, metabolic syndrome, higher body mass index (BMI), systemic inflammation, Alzheimer’s disease and other forms of dementia, psychiatric disorders, and all-cause mortality. However, there is very little experimental evidence supporting the possibility that long sleep triggers pathophysiological processes. In fact, findings from sleep extension studies in humans generally suggest only beneficial effects of longer sleep.
Sleep Tips
Q: What strategies do you recommend for people who must wake up between 4–5 a.m. every day and struggle to increase their sleep duration?
JFI – Sometimes the easiest and most effective approach is to adjust practice or work schedules to allow adequate sleep opportunity. When that’s not possible, education and top-down advocacy for healthy sleep scheduling within teams or organizations can make a major difference.
If an early wake time is unavoidable, bedtime can be gradually advanced in 15–30-minute increments. Using a low dose of melatonin about 6 hours before the desired bedtime and bright light therapy upon awakening (since it is often still dark) can help shift the body clock earlier. Keep evenings dim and low-stimulus, tighten caffeine cutoff (at least 8 hours before bed), and consider a brief early-afternoon nap to support alertness and recovery.
Q: What can we do specifically to increase the amount of deep sleep that we get?
JFI – Deep sleep is essential for physical recovery, memory consolidation, immune function, and metabolic health. The most effective strategies include maintaining a regular sleep schedule, as consistency strengthens circadian rhythms and supports more restorative sleep. Limit caffeine at least 8 hours before bedtime, since even afternoon caffeine can reduce deep sleep. Keep your bedroom cool, dark, and quiet, as lower temperatures and darkness promote the body’s natural transition into deeper sleep stages. Aim for adequate total sleep time, since deep sleep occurs mostly in the first half of the night. A balanced evening meal with complex carbohydrates and protein can support melatonin production, while heavy or high-fat meals and alcohol close to bedtime can suppress deep sleep and increase awakenings. Finally, calming routines such as slow breathing, light stretching, or mindfulness before bed help reduce stress and make it easier to enter and maintain deep, restorative sleep.
Napping
Q: What’s the importance of napping, and how much?
JFI – Napping can play an important role in recovery, performance, and cognitive function, especially when nighttime sleep is insufficient. Research shows that even short naps can improve reaction time, alertness, mood, and decision-making, while longer naps enhance physical recovery and memory consolidation.
For most people, a 20–40-minute nap provides a quick energy and alertness boost with minimal sleep inertia (grogginess upon waking). Longer naps of 60–90 minutes allow for deeper stages of sleep, including REM and slow-wave sleep, which are beneficial for muscle repair, learning, and immune function, but may require extra time to fully wake up (sleep inertia).
The ideal nap window is early to mid-afternoon, when the body’s circadian rhythm naturally dips. Athletes and shift workers may benefit from planned naps before or between demanding activities. While naps don’t fully replace nighttime sleep, they are a powerful tool for enhancing recovery, performance, and resilience, particularly when sleep schedules are disrupted or shortened.
Q: Does sleeping in short intervals adding up to the total required hours of sleep result in the same physiological benefit as having a total continuous 7–9 hours of sleep?
JFI – In general, continuous nighttime sleep provides the greatest physiological benefit because it allows for complete, predictable cycles of deep (slow-wave) and REM sleep, which are essential for recovery, memory, and hormonal regulation. Fragmented sleep can reduce time spent in these restorative stages and disrupt circadian and endocrine rhythms.
That said, split sleep, for example, a core sleep period of 4–6 hours at night followed by another 2–3 hours later in the day, can be an effective adaptation strategy for shift workers, military personnel, or athletes with irregular schedules. Studies show that when total sleep duration is maintained, split sleep can help preserve alertness, cognitive performance, and reaction time, although it may not fully match the recovery benefits of continuous sleep.
In practice, split sleep should be viewed as a useful coping strategy when uninterrupted sleep isn’t possible, but continuous 7–9 hours remains ideal for optimal health, recovery, and performance.
Whole Foods
Q: How harmful is excess coffee on overall health?
JFI – Moderate coffee intake is generally safe and has been associated with several health benefits, including reduced risk of type 2 diabetes, Parkinson’s disease, liver disease, and certain cancers, as well as improved alertness and cognitive performance.
The FDA recommends keeping total caffeine intake below 400 mg per day (about 3–4 cups of brewed coffee) for most healthy adults. Excessive intake can cause insomnia, anxiety, elevated heart rate, increased blood pressure, and may worsen acid reflux or jitteriness.
Caffeine taken late in the day can delay sleep onset and reduce sleep quality, especially at doses above 2 mg/kg within six hours of bedtime. Consistent overuse or sudden withdrawal can also lead to headaches, irritability, and fatigue. For both athletes and non-athletes, dose and timing are key to balancing the benefits of alertness and performance with long-term health and recovery.
Q: What is the optimal pre-event time for caffeine consumption?
KS – The optimal time to consume caffeine for an ergogenic effect is about 60 minutes before an event, using a dose of 3 to 6 mg per kilogram of body weight. This timing allows for caffeine to peak in the bloodstream, and the dose can enhance performance across various sports, particularly in longer aerobic events. For athletes who are not habitual caffeine users, start at the lower end of the recommendation for optimal results.
Q: Does a plant-based protein before bed still help with protein synthesis?
KS – Protein consumed immediately before sleep is efficiently digested and absorbed, leading to increased amino acid availability throughout the night. This elevated amino acid availability stimulates muscle protein synthesis and enhances whole-body protein balance during overnight recovery. Consuming at least 40 grams of dietary protein 30-90 minutes before bed, especially after evening resistance training, can effectively increase overnight muscle protein synthesis (MPS). Plant-based proteins can stimulate overnight muscle protein synthesis, but their effectiveness may be reduced compared to animal-based proteins due to lower levels of essential amino acids like leucine. Overall, when consumed in sufficient amounts (check the serving size – as it may be higher due to the amino acid content), a plant-based protein blend can still support muscle protein synthesis during overnight recovery.
Q: Is it good to eat before sleep, as many people say that when we are digesting, we are not sleeping?
JFI – A light, balanced pre-sleep snack can aid recovery and sleep; avoid very large, fatty, or spicy meals late.
KS – I addressed this briefly above, and I agree that Joanna’s suggestion was excellent. Population-based data indicate that consuming food or beverages within one hour of bedtime is associated with longer total sleep duration, but also with increased wake after sleep onset (WASO). In contrast, eating or drinking further from bedtime is linked to lower odds of both short and long sleep durations, as well as reduced WASO. The causal mechanisms underlying these associations remain unclear; however, it is possible that inefficient sleep following late-night eating contributes to greater WASO and subsequently leads to compensatory increases in total sleep duration.
In another study of university students (n =793) Meal timing appears to represent a modifiable factor influencing nocturnal awakenings and sleep disruption. However, as this is a preliminary cross-sectional study, further research is warranted to clarify the impact of food intake timing on sleep quality and continuity. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7215804/
Q: There have been some reports that plant-based proteins may contain more lead (as well as other protein blends). How would you best recommend making sure to find good quality sources?
KS – The most recent consumer report’s evaluation certainly has caused quite a bit of concern regarding plant-based protein powders. It is true that plant-based protein powder supplements tend to have higher heavy metal levels than animal-based protein powder. My solution to this is to vary your sources of protein and do not rely too heavily on protein supplements to support your protein needs. Good quality sources are those that contain essential amino acids such as beef, chicken, turkey, eggs and fish.
Hydration
Q: How does hydration (or dehydration) affect sleep quality/efficiency?
JFI – Good hydration supports overall comfort and sleep quality, but excessive fluid intake close to bedtime can increase nighttime awakenings to urinate, especially in older adults and men. It’s best to hydrate well earlier in the day and limit fluids about 2–3 hours before bedtime to reduce nocturia without causing dehydration.
Micronutrients and Supplements
Q: What do you think of use of melatonin or magnesium usage?
JFI – Melatonin: Has modest benefit for circadian rhythm delay and jet lag but mixed results for primary insomnia. Best used in low doses (0.5–3 mg) taken about 1–2 hours before the desired bedtime.
KS – Melatonin: Most over-the-counter melatonin supplements provide between 1 and 20 milligrams per dose—significantly exceeding the amount naturally produced by the human body. Although melatonin is generally considered safe across a wide range of doses, evidence remains limited regarding the long-term safety of supplementation in adults and particularly in children, who are among the most frequent users for managing persistent sleep difficulties.
While melatonin plays a well-established role in regulating the timing of sleep, it is important to recognize that it does not directly influence sleep duration, and current research does not clearly demonstrate an effect on sleep quality under typical conditions.
I agree with Joanna that it is best used in low doses (0.5-3mg) and not used habitually.
JFI – Magnesium: Evidence suggests it may support sleep quality, particularly in individuals with low magnesium levels, though it is not a primary treatment for insomnia. Magnesium glycinate is a good option since it’s well absorbed, and glycine itself has mild calming properties that may further support sleep. Typical dose: 200-400mg daily.
KS – Magnesium: Higher levels of magnesium in the body are associated with better sleep, longer sleep times, and less tiredness during the day. Studies of older adults also found that magnesium supplements helped with falling asleep faster and protected against waking up earlier than intended. Magnesium may help people whose sleep is disrupted due to leg cramps or restless legs syndrome. Taking magnesium as a supplement is safe for most people (always check with your doctor first), and note that magnesium glycinate has better GI tolerance and more sleep benefits than other forms. As long as you have healthy kidney function, dosages of 250 to 500 milligrams of magnesium glycinate in a single dose at bedtime. Evidence favors oral forms of magnesium; topical data are limited.
Hormones
Q: Any information on how chronic sleep deprivation affects adult women? More specifically regarding how this impacts cortisol levels, hormones, and insulin resistance.
JFI – Chronic sleep deprivation in women raises cortisol, disrupts hormone balance, and worsens insulin sensitivity, even without changes in body fat. Women appear more metabolically sensitive to sleep loss than men, with similar sleep restriction leading to greater increases in insulin resistance and blood glucose.
Women also show larger cortisol elevations and flatter daily cortisol rhythms, especially during the follicular phase and menopause when hormonal buffering is reduced. Men tend to show more sympathetic activation but smaller cortisol and insulin changes under comparable sleep loss.
Overall, insufficient sleep impairs glucose control and hormone regulation in both sexes, but women, particularly postmenopausal women, experience stronger neuroendocrine and metabolic effects, making sleep a key target for prevention of metabolic disease.
Q: How much does sleep have to do with weight gain or loss?
JFI – Short sleep dysregulates appetite hormones and insulin sensitivity, increasing weight-gain risk and undermining nutrition goals.
Q: How do menstrual cycle phases affect sleep patterns in female athletes, and what can help mitigate sleep loss?
JFI – Many women experience poorer sleep in the late luteal phase (just before menstruation) due to hormonal fluctuations, temperature changes, and mood symptoms. During this time, it helps to start the wind-down routine earlier, limit caffeine, and maintain a cool sleep environment. A small carb-protein snack before bed may also support relaxation and stabilize blood sugar.
Postmenopausal women often experience more persistent sleep issues related to hot flashes, night sweats, or hormonal decline. There are now safe and effective medical treatments for these symptoms, so it’s important to consult a gynecologist or sleep specialist for evaluation and individualized management.
Q: How does this apply in women going through peri/menopause?
JFI – Perimenopause and menopause are common times for new or worsening sleep problems due to declining estrogen and progesterone levels, which can trigger hot flashes, night sweats, mood changes, and sleep fragmentation. These symptoms can lead to difficulty falling or staying asleep, reduced deep sleep, and increased early morning awakenings.
Behavioral strategies such as keeping the bedroom cool, wearing breathable clothing, reducing evening alcohol and caffeine, and maintaining a consistent sleep–wake schedule can help improve comfort and sleep quality. Relaxation practices, gentle stretching, or mindfulness before bed may also reduce nighttime awakenings.
If symptoms persist, medical treatment options are available. These include menopausal hormone therapy (MHT) for appropriate candidates, nonhormonal medications such as low-dose SSRIs or SNRIs for hot flashes, and newer options like neurokinin-3 receptor antagonists. For women whose primary issue is insomnia, cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) remains the first-line approach.
Because sleep and hormonal symptoms often overlap, it’s best to work with a gynecologist and sleep specialist to create a personalized plan that addresses both hormone-related and behavioral contributors to poor sleep.
