Our cognitive function, the vital mental processes that allow us to focus, reason, and make decisions, shapes how we navigate the world. For decades, scientists in fields like sports science have extensively investigated how a single bout of exercise improves cognitive function. Yet, the exact brain pathways behind these exercise-induced cognitive improvements have long remained a mystery.
In our review article, published in the July 2026 issue of Exercise & Sport Sciences Reviews, we aimed to address a fundamental question: How and why does acute exercise improve cognitive function? To this end, we focused on dopamine (DA) and explored its potential role in driving this enhancement. Our review highlights that acute exercise triggers the release of DA in the living human brain, and that this release directly correlates with improved cognitive performance, as shown by faster reaction times on a standard cognitive test (a Go/No-Go task).
We propose that changes in brain chemical signaling (neuromodulation) primarily drive these acute exercise-induced cognitive improvements. While our main target was the dopaminergic system, we cannot ignore the contribution of the noradrenergic system. Rather, these two systems likely work synergistically to improve cognitive function in response to acute exercise.
But what exactly triggers this response? To find out, we have used electrical muscle stimulation (EMS) to induce involuntary muscle contractions, bypassing the brain. This unique approach helps us understand how feedback from moving muscles affects our cognition, without active commands from the brain or substantial increases in heart rate. Interestingly, we have discovered that peripheral muscle activity alone may not be sufficient to induce substantial cognitive improvements when compared to voluntary exercise. These results suggest that the central neural activity required for voluntary exercise is critical for enhancing neuromodulation.
Based on the idea that acute exercise acts as a physiological stressor that activates our sympathetic nervous system (SNS), we introduce a novel hypothesis: the evolutionary purpose of cognitive improvements is to quickly shift our brain circuits toward fast, survival-oriented pathways. This suggests that humans possess a built-in, neuromodulation-driven ability to respond rapidly when faced with a “fight-or-flight” situation. Together with SNS activation, effort and motivation can profoundly potentiate these beneficial changes in neuromodulatory systems in response to acute exercise.
To fully unlock this mystery, several crucial questions remain. How do different exercise intensities (particularly high intensity) and durations alter neuromodulation? How does neuromodulation work synergistically with metabolic and hemodynamic variables? And how do these acute effects impact long-term brain health? Future studies employing sophisticated neuroimaging techniques will be critical to advancing our understanding of these physiological mechanisms, particularly regarding the interplay among neuromodulation, local blood flow, and energy metabolism in the brain.
Soichi Ando, PhD, is an exercise physiologist and an associate professor in the Health & Sports Science Laboratory at the University of Electro-Communications in Japan. His research group investigates how acute and regular exercise, as well as electrical muscle stimulation, affect the human body. He focuses particularly on the exercise-cognition interaction under various physiological conditions and how aging affects this relationship. Dr. Ando is an active member of ACSM.
